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SCHIZOPHRENIA

SCHIZOPHRENIA

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Schizophrenia is a severe and chronic mental disorder. It affects the emotional well-being of the person. The patients usually seem to have distortions of reality and hallucinating. The family and friends are on the receiving end of the distorted behaviors. If the symptoms are left untreated they have deleterious effects on the society (Janoutova et al., 2016). The hallmark of the symptoms of schizophrenia is psychosis, such as auditory hallucinations and delusions. The patients may also present with impaired cognition though this symptom is often underestimated. Persons with the condition have lower rates of employment, marriage, and are dependent on others. The treatment requires a firm integration of medical, psychological, and psychosocial inputs. The patients are frequently handled in the outpatient setting. Psychosocial interventions are critical in the care of this group of patients.

The lifetime prevalence of schizophrenia in the world is about 1% (Janoutova et al., 2016). Schizophrenia is less prevalent in less developed countries majorly because of little diagnosis. Immigrants to developed states display higher rates of schizophrenia. The disease affects approximately 20 million people globally (Janblensky, 2018). The diagnosis tends to occur in late adolescence and early thirties. The onset is much earlier in males than in females. The clinical manifestations are less severe in women than men, which may be due to the antidopaminergic effect of estrogen hormone. However, the prevalence is similar in both women and men. Schizophrenia is reported rarely in children. The symptoms are worse during the first 5-10 years. Later on, the patient is relatively stable. The schizophrenia symptoms lie in three general categories namely, psychotic, negative, and cognitive symptoms. Psychotic symptoms involve altered perceptions. Therefore, a patient may present with changes in smell, vision, touch, taste, and hearing. The patients may either be deluded or hallucinating. They may have distorted thoughts and may also present with disorganized speech. Negative symptoms are characterized by loss of motivation, disinterest, social withdrawal, and depression of normal functions. Some of these symptoms cause the “flat effect” with reduced speaking (Galderesi, 2018). Cognitive symptoms involve those that alter higher brain functions such as memory, attention, and concentration. In most cases, the cognitive symptoms may be subtle, while in some patients, they are the most prominent features of the disease. They interfere with the person’s normal daily activities leading to social alienation.

There is no definite cause of schizophrenia. It is thought that the interaction of genetic factors and environmental factors lead to schizophrenia. Psychosocial factors may also play a significant role in the condition. Neuroimaging studies of schizophrenic patients reveal appreciable differences from healthy individuals. For example, the ventricles are somewhat larger, with lower brain volumes in the medial temporal areas. Dopamine plays a crucial role in the brain. In schizophrenic patients, the dopaminergic system is somewhat abnormal (Van Den Heuvel, Martijn & Alex, 2014). The immune system also plays a part in the progression of schizophrenia. Overactivation of the immune system results in amplified expression of inflammatory cytokines and subsequent changes to the brain structure and function. The risk is elevated in biological relatives of patients with the disease. First degree relatives have a 10% risk. The risk is at 40% if both parents have schizophrenia. Perinatal factors such as malnourishment of pregnant women may increase the risk of developing schizophrenia (Searles, 2018).

The causes of the disease are complex and, therefore, the treatment focuses on managing the symptoms of the disease. The aims of treatment include to improve the quality of life of the patient and to reduce the symptoms of the disease. The medications may be administered either once or twice monthly. The treatment schedule is convenient for most patients. Clozapine is added to patients whose symptoms do not improve with standard antipsychotic medication therapy. Patients on clozapine must be closely monitored due to potential serious blood side effects. Antipsychotic medications cause the following side effects: xerostomia, restlessness, and drowsiness (Searles, 2018). The above symptoms are prevalent at the start of therapy. Hence, some of them subside with time while others persist. The patient should be advised that abrupt withdrawal of the medications can exacerbate schizophrenic symptoms.

Psychosocial interventions are integral in the management of schizophrenia. The measures may include CBT, behavioral skills training, supported employment, and cognitive remediation. The above approaches may help to address both negative and cognitive symptoms. In practice, psychosocial interventions are combined with antipsychotic therapy. Psychosocial methods aid an individual to blend with the environment. The patient is taught how to interact with colleagues, friends, and family. They can also be helped to pursue life goals. The patient can now participate in community activities and get employment. Patients on psychosocial treatment have fewer relapses and fewer hospitalization incidences (Searles, 2018).

Therapy is incomplete when it does not involve the community. Hence, management integrates education programs for family members and friends. The programs incorporate lessons on the symptoms of the disease, treatment options, adverse effects of drugs, and prognosis. The education programs aim to decrease their distress, promote their cooperation and empowerment, and boost their ability to assist.

The prognosis of the condition is guarded. Full recovery is rare. Some of the following risk factors are associated with poor outcomes: early-onset, conspicuous cognitive manifestations, family history, and structural brain abnormalities. The clinical manifestations follow a wax and wane course. Positive symptoms respond better to medical therapy while the other symptoms tend to prevail. Schizophrenic patients have a 5% lifetime probability of committing suicide (Searles, 2018).

Schizophrenia affects people worldwide with subsequent disability in the population. The patients are less likely to get employment, hence, may lead to social withdrawal. The community should be educated on these notable features to lessen the stigmatization. Let society be sensitized to avoid cases of discrimination and violation of human rights towards schizophrenic patients. Schizophrenia is treatable.

References

Galderisi, S., Mucci, A., Buchanan, R. W., & Arango, C. (2018). Negative symptoms of schizophrenia: new developments and unanswered research questions. The Lancet Psychiatry, 5(8), 664-677.

Jablensky, A. (2018). An overview of the World Health Organization’s multi-centre studies of schizophrenia. The Scope of Epidemiological Psychiatry, 455-471.

Janoutová, J., Janáčková, P., Šerý, O., Zeman, T., Ambroz, P., Kovalová, M., … & Janout, V. (2016). Epidemiology and risk factors of schizophrenia. Neuroendocrinology Letters, 37(1), 1-8.

Searles, H. F. (2018). Collected papers on schizophrenia and related subjects. Routledge.

Van Den Heuvel, Martijn P., and Alex Fornito. “Brain networks in schizophrenia.” Neuropsychology Review 24.1 (2014): 32-48.

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CategoriesUncategorized

Schizophrenia

 

Ashford 6: – Week 5 – Final Project

 

Final Project: Biopsychological Analysis of a Neuropsychological Disorder

In your Final Project, you will synthesize an overview of the major theories relating to the pathology of a disorder as well as provide a detailed discussion of the etiology (causes) and clinical interventions, using research to support your analysis.  Your topic will be the neuropsychological disorder that was selected and approved by the instructor in your Week One assignment, and for which you provided an outline in the Week Two assignment.  

In keeping with the focus of this class, the emphasis of your paper will be on the neuroscience aspects of the disorder, to include:

 

  • Theories of etiology (causes)
  • Associated factors in development of the disorder (genetic, environmental, familial, lifestyle)
  • Pathology (abnormalities of physical structure and function, including genetic and biochemical aspects)
  • Treatment options (pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic, with rationales for use based on current understanding of the disorder)
  • Diagnostic and research technologies employed in clinical diagnosis, care, and basic science research  

 


Your research will include a minimum of six to eight peer-reviewed sources, which provide evidence-based information regarding the biological and psychological features of the disorder and were published within the last five years. At least four of your references should be peer-reviewed publications of original research studies. To justify your assertions, provide in-text citations for all factual statements taken from your research, with corresponding references drawn from scholarly sources.  All citations and sources are to be documented according to APA style, as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center, and should support and enhance your analysis of the selected disorder. Sources may include review articles, original research articles, information from government agencies (e.g., National Institutes of Health, Centers for Disease Control, Food and Drug Administration, Drug Enforcement Administration) or professional societies (e.g., professional society position papers or clinical practice guidelines).      

Final Project- Components

Section I:  Introduction

This section should provide a general introduction to the topic as well as an overview of the background and history of the disorder. Further, it should provide a succinct thesis statement of the purpose and overall direction of the paper.  For instance, if your paper will have a large focus on the role of particular neurotransmitters in the etiology of the disorder as a rationale for treatment options, you should indicate this in the introduction. Finally, this section should provide demographic data that indicates the prevalence of the disorder in both general and specific populations.  

Specific required components of the Introduction:   

 

  1. Succinct thesis statement (one or more sentences detailing the focus of your Final Project and informing the reader about your topic and the scope of your paper)
  2. Define the type of disorder
    1. Neurological
    2. Psychological
    3. Neuropsychological
  3. Diagnostic criteria
    1. What components must be present for the disorder to be diagnosed?
    2. Include physical and psychological signs and symptoms.  
  4. Reason(s) why you chose this topic
    1. Personal experience
    2. Professional experience
    3. Other reason
  5. Epidemiology
    1. Who is affected?
    2. Are they young/old?
    3. Male/female
    4. Rural/urban
    5. Ethnicities

 


Section II: Discussion

This section should make up the majority of the Final Project in terms of size. Here, you will expand upon the main aspects of the disorder and provide details relating to the disorder and its management. This section should provide specific and detailed information (Reminder: All statements of fact require an in-text citation).   Cited/referenced sources should be used to support your analysis of the components of the discussion.  

Specific required components of the Discussion section:   

 

  1. Detailed description of the disorder
    1. Signs and symptoms
    2. Epidemiology
    3. Any subtypes of the disorder
  2. Detailed description of the natural history of the disorder
    1. How the disorder develops over time with treatment
    2. How the disorder develops over time without treatment
  3. Methods used to diagnose, evaluate, and manage the disorder
    1. Initial diagnosis (e.g., physical exam, imaging and/or laboratory testing, special studies, psychological evaluation, psychometric testing)  
    2. Ongoing management (e.g., physical exam, imaging and/or laboratory testing, special studies, psychological evaluation, psychometric testing)
  4. Risk factors
    1. Genetics
    2. Lifestyle
    3. Environmental factors
  5. Other causative factors
    1. Known
    2. Theorized
  6. Nervous system structures and/or pathways involved in the disorder (detailed information regarding the underlying pathology as it applies to these structures and functional pathways)
  7. Neurotransmitter(s) and receptor system(s) involved in the pathology of the disorder
  8. Current treatment options
    1. Drug (pharmacologic) therapies
    2. Nonpharmacologic therapies (including psychological and other therapeutic services)
    3. Type of care providers (e.g., medical, nursing, therapists)
    4. Type of healthcare setting (e.g., hospital, home, outpatient, nursing facility)
  9. Future areas of research
    1. Treatment options
    2. Evaluation and diagnostic methods for initial diagnosis
    3. Increasing knowledge relating to etiology and pathologic processes

 


Section III: Conclusion

Provide a concluding summary of your findings regarding your selected disorder. The conclusion is a summarization of information that has already been presented.  Typically, if you mention something in the conclusion section of an academic paper, you should have already mentioned this aspect of the topic earlier in the paper.

Specific required components of the Conclusion section:   

 

  1. The conclusion reaffirms your initial thesis statement.
  2. The conclusion may be one or more paragraphs. Use the material you have discussed in the paper to support the validity of your synthesis and elaborate on the theme of your paper.

 


Writing the Final Project
The Final Project:

 

  1. Must be 10 to 12 double-spaced pages in length, and formatted according to APA style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center.
  2. Must include a title page with the following:
    1. Title of paper
    2. Student’s name
    3. Course name and number
    4. Instructor’s name
    5. Date submitted
  3. Must begin with an introductory paragraph that has a succinct thesis statement.
  4. Must address the topic of the paper with critical thought.
  5. Must include section headings, formatted according to APA style, to organize your paper. Each paragraph must have a minimum of three full sentences.  
  6. Must include in-text citations for all statements of facts obtained through your research.
    1. Remember that direct quotes (identical phrases or sentences taken from a source) require in-text citations with appropriate formatting.
    2. Statements of opinion should be clearly stated as such, and include a rationale to support why you hold this opinion (e.g., personal or professional experience, your research findings).
  7. Must end with a conclusion that reaffirms your thesis.
  8. Must use at least six to eight scholarly sources that were published within the last five years, including a minimum of four peer-reviewed original research studies.
    1. In general, dictionaries and encyclopedias are not considered appropriate resources for academic writing.
  9. Must document all sources in APA style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center.
  10. Must include a separate reference page, formatted according to APA style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center

    Schizophrenia is the choice I got.
     

 


 

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