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African Civilizations: Take-Home Midterm Exam

Essay 1

Question 1

It has long been accepted by historians that African kingdoms existed, and they had similarities and differences in the way they conducted their affairs. The paper will analyze some of the early political kingdoms, such as the ones that existed in West Africa and Southern Africa. In West Africa, the prominent kingdoms were Ghana, Mali, and Songhay, while the main ones in central and Southern Africa were the Kongo and Great Zimbabwe (Lecture). These states or political systems had unique attributes, making them stand out from the rest. Long before Europeans reached the African continent, these kingdoms and political systems had structures and procedures that ensured their survival; they thrived because every member of society knew their place and role in society. Accordingly, movement from one place to another upset the economic balance between the pastoralists and agriculturalists, led to the introduction of foreign religions, and ensured they united against their foes.

In Western Africa, the kingdoms had recognized political leaders and religious leaders. There existed a hierarchy, where every member of the kingdom played a specific role. In the same way, they engaged in agriculture, where the proceeds were sold under the barter trade system. Rulers presided over elaborate cultural ceremonies and customs, where dance, music, and art flourished. There existed merchants who traded vital goods such as salt and gold. In Western and Southern Africa states, similarities were evident in the administrative machinery, the centralized authority, and the judicial system that ensured everyone followed the law. In the same way, wealth cleavages and privilege corresponded with the authority and power a family or individual held. In most cases, leadership was hereditary, and authority often went to the eldest son. In essence, the kingdoms had structures that ensued people obeyed the law, respected their neighbors’ property, and played a role in advancing the interests of the people.

In Southern Africa, the first significant kingdom was Great Zimbabwe, the ruler governed assisted by a court drawn from his family members and religious or military rulers. In far-off lands, the king appointed governors who ruled on his behalf. The center of power was in the current ruins of Zimbabwe, which equally shows that the center served as an important trading outpost (Lecture). Great Zimbabwe appears to have been a stratified society, where livestock herders, farmers, artisans, and ordinary people played various important roles. In essence, the kingdom was part of a global network of trade as evidenced by the finding of pottery from far-flung areas. On the other hand, the Kongo kingdom was located in central and west Africa and appears to have been a federation made up of small polities. The King of Kongo kept a close eye on the people because the kingdom was densely populated areas. The succession system was complex and was prone to regular disputes. The kingdom often engaged in wars with other kingdoms, probably because of competition for influence and trade routes. Thus, the kingdoms of Western and Central, and Southern Africa had unique systems that ensured people kept law and order and contributed to the development of their kingdom. There were clear systems of leadership and succession and people engaged in trade and agriculture. These developments ensured that every member of the kingdom played his role in advancing the interests of the population.

Analysis of the kingdoms shows certain patterns in early African state-making. For example, there existed feuds with neighbors because of the control of resources, but each kingdom had clearly defined leadership with elaborate judicial and administrative systems. Most engaged in various activities for survival, such as agriculture and trade. Every member of the kingdom had defined roles and was important in making the kingdom thrive. Whenever disputes arose, measures were taken to resolve them amicably. Regular migration was part of the people’s lives, often prompted by scarce resources. In essence, early state-making in Africa took various forms, but the most important was the stratified nature of society, defined leadership with succession plans, religious leaders, and political leaders who guided communities in conducting various cultural ceremonies. Wars were common, as was the displacement of people. The above factors were the key drivers of early state-making.

Essay 2

Question 4

Trade and religion were the core drivers of African contact with the outside world. Before the arrival of foreigners, Africans had religions, where they organized themselves and performed religious ceremonies. Equally, they had religious and political leaders who led the people during such ceremonies. The paper will elaborate on the history of Africa, its contact with the outside world, the effects of trade and religion, and resistance as part of the history of Africa and its influence globally.

One of the most important sources of contact between Africa and the external world happened through trade. Arguably, the Trans-Saharan trade was the most important, enabling Africans to come into contact with the outside world. Importantly, the Trans-Saharan trade enabled Africans to strengthen their connections with the Mediterranean region. Apparently, the Sahara was not as harsh as it currently is, enabling people to move vast distances with their trade wares. Events in North Africa were connected to those in West Africa and the Mediterranean region. The contact between West and North Africans enabled the spread of Islam to the other parts of the continent. Ancient cities in West Africa, such as Timbuktu, were important trading, religious, and educational centers, enabling enlightened people to engage in trade with the other regions. Muslims and worshippers of the numerous other African religions co-existed peacefully, and the caravan trade was organized effectively. The emergence of trade networks was an important driver of trade and enabled Africans to trade in gold, sculpture, and numerous other items.

One important effect of the contact between Africans and the outside world was the emergence of trading centers. These centers served an important role, especially in the exchange of cultural practices. On the same note, they became valuable religious centers, especially for Islam. Equally, they served as centers for scholarly production, where literacy and Arabic were important, further fueling the spread of Islam. Understandably, rulers maintained their leadership and religious structures, but the influence of the contact was evident. For instance, they introduced the law, taxation, and learning institutions to spread literacy and religion.

The contact between Africa and the outside world had positive and negative effects. On the positive side, it enabled the spread of literacy and religion as most people in the outside world embraced religion other than the ones practiced in Africa. Equally, Africans managed to sell their wares to foreigners, especially gold and ivory, while they purchased salt and other valuable items from far-flung areas. The art forms practiced in the Mediterranean found their way to Africa, while some art forms were taken to Europe and the Middle East. On the other hand, there was a significant effect on the structures of African communities as rulers introduced taxation and the law (Sunjata and Africanus 119). The regular movement of people across vast regions enabled the spread of diseases and had adverse effects on the environment. On the other hand, some rulers gave foreigners valuable gold as they made their way to Mecca for the annual pilgrimage, such as Mansa Musa.

In essence, the contact between Africa and the outside world had religious, economic, and political consequences. On the economic front, it strengthened trade ties and led to the establishment of various important trade routes and centers. Religiously, they led to the spread of Islam and other foreign languages but occasioned the decline of African indigenous religions. Political reorganizations emerged with tremendous effects in all parts of Africa. In this regard, one could argue that political, social, and economic transformation shaped the globalization that followed. Colonialism brought numerous changes across Africa, affecting nearly every aspect of Africans’ lives. Attempt to control valuable trade routes led to feuds because they were important to the existence of the kingdoms. In essence, trade and trade routes lead to the exchange of goods, currency, religion, and technology, and this is evident between Africa and other world religions. The spread of alien diseases was inevitable, as were the intermittent clashes that occurred. In this regard, some of the developments that were later witnessed across the African continent could not have been possible without the emergence of trade and the outcomes.

Works Cited

Lecture 13

Lectures 7, 8, and 9

Sunjata and Leo Africanus, “The Western Sudan”